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About Datacentres

What are Datacentres

A data center is a centralized facility that houses computer systems and infrastructure for the purpose of storing, processing, and managing large amounts of data. It serves as the backbone of modern information technology by providing secure and reliable storage, networking, and computing resources. Data centers are designed to ensure high availability and efficiency, with redundant power supplies, cooling systems, and network connections. They are essential for organizations to store and access data, host websites and applications, and support various digital services. Data centers play a crucial role in enabling the storage, processing, and delivery of data in today's interconnected world.

When did they come around?

Data centers have been around for several decades, evolving in tandem with the growth of computing and digital technologies. The concept of centralized computing facilities can be traced back to the 1940s and 1950s when early mainframe computers required dedicated spaces with specialized infrastructure. However, it was during the 1960s and 1970s that the modern data center began to take shape with the advent of large-scale computer systems and the need for robust data processing capabilities.

Who invented them?

In the early days of computing, companies such as IBM played a significant role in the establishment of data centers by developing and providing mainframe computers that required dedicated spaces with specialized infrastructure. As computing technology progressed, organizations began to realize the need for centralized facilities to house their growing computing resources and data storage systems.

Why do we have them?

Data centers are essential for numerous reasons in today's digital age. Firstly, they provide the necessary infrastructure for storing and managing vast amounts of data generated by individuals, businesses, and organizations. With the exponential growth of digital content, including documents, images, videos, and databases, data centers offer secure and reliable storage solutions.

Secondly, data centers enable efficient data processing and computation. They house powerful servers and computing resources that can handle complex calculations, perform analytics, and support artificial intelligence and machine learning algorithms. This computational capacity is crucial for various applications, such as scientific research, financial modeling, data analysis, and virtual simulations.

Furthermore, data centers facilitate data backup and disaster recovery. By implementing redundant storage systems and backup protocols, they protect valuable data from loss or corruption. In the event of a hardware failure, natural disaster, or cyber attack, data centers can quickly restore data and ensure business continuity.

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Inside a Iron Mountain datacenter, 360' tour

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Where are the Datacentres?

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Accessibility

Being located near cities ensures convenient access to transportation networks, including highways, airports, and fibre optic communication lines. This facilitates the movement of equipment, staff, and data to and from the data centre.

Connectivity

Cities typically have robust telecommunication infrastructure, including high-speed internet connectivity and network providers. By locating data centres near cities, they can leverage these existing network resources, ensuring fast and reliable connectivity for their operations.

Customers

Many businesses and organizations that rely on data centres are situated in urban areas. By having data centres nearby, it becomes easier to establish low-latency connections between the data centre and its customers, resulting in improved performance and responsiveness.

Power

Urban areas generally have a more reliable power supply and access to multiple power sources. This is crucial for data centres that require high levels of power to support their operations. Being close to cities allows data centres to tap into stable and diverse power grids, reducing the risk of prolonged outages.

Mitigation

While data centres implement robust disaster recovery measures, including backup power and redundancy, being close to cities can provide additional advantages in terms of disaster risk mitigation. Urban areas often have better emergency response systems, such as fire departments and medical facilities, which can be crucial in case of emergencies.

Workforce

Cities offer a larger pool of skilled professionals, including IT specialists, engineers, and technicians. Proximity to urban areas allows data centres to attract and access a talented workforce, making it easier to recruit and retain skilled personnel.

Business

Cities serve as hubs for various industries and businesses. By locating data centres near cities, they can take advantage of the thriving business ecosystems, networking opportunities, and potential partnerships with other organizations.

Services

Hosting

Datacentres offer “stable environments, enhanced security, equipment and alarms, uninterrupted power (UPS and generators), high-speed network connectivity, and other features” (Data Center Access 2019) along side hosting services for websites, software storage and virtualization of machines and processes which eliminates the need for companies to maintain their own server rooms providing lower costs.

Colocation

Datacentres provide colocation services, where the datacentre can “leases space, power, and cooling” (Colocation Data Centers 2021). Colocation enables companies to leverage the datacentre’s robust infrastructure without investing in their own facility.

Virtualization

Virtualization is the “simulation of the software and/or hardware upon which other software runs” (Scarfone et al., 2021) which is used in datacentres to optimize resource utilization and improve scalability as it enables the creation of virtual machines (VMs) that can run multiple applications on a single physical server.

Storage

Secure and scalable storage solutions. This includes options such as “network-attached storage (NAS)” (Krzyzanowski, 2021), “storage area network (SAN)” (Continuing it training program - storage area networks 2022), and object storage.

Recovery

Providing backup and recovery services by implement strategies to protect data from natural disasters, system failures, or human errors as seen in (AKILLI & Güneş, 2016).

Managment

As seen in the example off (Managed Services 2023), datacentres provide proactive monitoring, maintenance, and management of IT infrastructure. This includes managing servers, networks, security systems, and backups, allowing businesses to focus on their core operations.

Security

Datacentres prioritize security measures to protect data and infrastructure. They implement physical security controls, such as access controls, surveillance systems, and biometric authentication as seen in the (Data Center Operations 2017). Datacentres also employ advanced cybersecurity measures, including firewalls, intrusion detection systems, and encryption, to safeguard against unauthorized access and data breaches.

Compliance

Datacentres may provide compliance with industry regulations and standards, such as HIPAA (Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act) for healthcare data or GDPR (General Data Protection Regulation) for European Union data. They implement security controls and practices to meet the specific compliance requirements of different industries.

Datacentre layout

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Organization

“Datacentre equipment is laid out in rows of racks with alternating cold (rack air intake side) and hot (rack air heat exhaust side) aisles between them” (Lintner et al., 2011) allowing for efficient cooling and space efficiency.

Labeling

To facilitate maintenance, management, and troubleshooting the datacentres “will label all equipment within the cabinets so that hardware is easily identifiable” (IU Data Center standards 2023). Labels are placed on servers, rack units, and power distribution units (PDUs) to provide information about their location, connectivity, and power requirements. This labelling system helps technicians identify and locate specific servers and troubleshoot any issues quickly.

Cabling

Cables are neatly routed to avoid clutter, provide easy maintenance and preventing tangling and interference with airflow as “Jumbled, disorganized, “spaghetti” cabling and wires can clog air conduits, restricting desired airflow” (Evidence-based best practices around Data Center Management 2016).

Airflow

“Effective air management implementation minimizes the bypass of cooling air around rack intakes and the recirculation of heat exhaust back into rack intakes. When designed correctly, an air management system can reduce operating costs, reduce first cost equipment investment, increase the datacentre’s power density (Watts/ square foot), and reduce heat related processing interruptions or failures.” (Lintner et al., 2011)

Tiers

“Data center tiers are a standardized ranking system that indicates the reliability of data center infrastructure. This classification ranks facilities from 1 to 4, with 1 being the worst and 4 the best-performing level.” (Velimirovic, 2023) this was developed by the Uptime Institute, a globally recognized authority in data centre design and management. It provides a framework for evaluating and comparing the resilience and performance of data centre facilities.

Tier 1

Basic infrastructure components and offer limited availability. They typically have a single path for power and cooling, which makes them susceptible to interruptions for maintenance or equipment failures. Tier I data centres provide an uptime availability of approximately 99.671%.

Tier 2

Have redundant components for power and cooling, allowing for scheduled maintenance and minimizing the impact of some equipment failures. However, Tier II data centres still have a single path for certain infrastructure components. They provide an uptime availability of approximately 99.741%.

Tier 3

Have multiple redundant components and distribution paths for power and cooling, allowing for maintenance without disrupting operations. Tier III data centres provide an uptime availability of approximately 99.982%. This tier is often the minimum requirement for critical applications and services.

Tier 4

Offer a fault-tolerant infrastructure with no single points of failure and provide an uptime availability of approximately 99.995%. These data centres are typically used for mission-critical applications and services that require continuous operations without any downtime.

Rack

Different types of equipment come in varying form factors, indicating their physical size and shape. Servers, for example, can be designed in different form factors such as 1U, 2U, or 4U, among others. The "U" designation corresponds to the number of rack units the equipment occupies. In racks, “Only height of the module is measured in U’s. 1U=1.75 inch, Width of the rack is standard 19 inch. 10”, 21”, and 23” racks are also used. Total height of the rack is also standard 42 U or 45 U” (Jain, 2021) This provides a standardized way to describe the vertical space within a server rack.

1U

A 1U server is compact and occupies a single rack unit, which is equivalent to 1.75 inches or 44.45 millimetres in height. These servers are typically thin and horizontally mounted, making them space-efficient and allowing for high-density deployments.

2U

A 2U server is taller and occupies two rack units, or 3.5 inches or 88.9 millimetres in height. These servers offer more room for additional components or expansion options compared to 1U servers while still maintaining a relatively compact form factor.

3U

A 3U server is a mid-sized server that occupies three rack units, equivalent to 5.25 inches or 133.35 millimetres in height. Offering more room for additional components and features compared to 1U and 2U servers, while still being relatively space efficient.

4U

A 4U server is larger and occupies four rack units, or 7 inches or 177.8 millimetres in height. They provide more space for components, such as multiple processors, additional storage drives, or advanced cooling systems.

Two-Post

Known as relay racks or telco racks, two-post racks consist of two vertical posts and adjustable mounting rails. They are primarily used for network equipment, patch panels, and telecommunications devices.

Four-Post

Four-post racks provide sturdy and stable support for heavy equipment. They have four vertical posts and adjustable mounting rails, offering flexibility in accommodating various server depths.

Blade

Blade chassis is a specialized rack arrangement designed for blade servers. They “provide a scalable means for combining multiple blade server or storage units in a single enclosure, and are designed to allow service technicians to easily add or replace (hot-swap) blades in the field” (Server type 2023).

Modular

Self-contained, preconfigured units that combine server, storage, networking, and power components. These racks are designed for easy scalability and quick deployment.

Open & Closed

Open-frame racks without side panels or doors provide easy access to equipment and efficient cooling by allowing unrestricted airflow. Closed have Solid sides and doors provide physical security. They are used in data centres where security is a top priority. Cabinet racks are enclosed racks with additional features such as cable management systems, adjustable mounting rails and integrated power distribution units (PDUs). These offer enhanced organization and functionality.

Power

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Generators

Backup generators are installed to provide emergency power “to make up when the grid is not present” ( Chalise et al., 2015). These generators are often fuelled by diesel or natural gas and can sustain the data centre's power requirements for extended periods, ensuring continuous operations.

UPS

UPS” Uninterruptible power supply. It's a device that permits a computer keep running for a few hours during a blackout or when the primary power source is lost.” (Importance of UPS for data centers 2021) they act as a bridge between the utility power and backup generators and provide short-term power during the transition between the utility power outage and the generator startup. UPS systems also help regulate power quality by filtering out voltage spikes, sags, or other electrical disturbances that can harm the sensitive equipment.

PDU

“PDUs are part of a data center’s electrical distribution system, which includes utility or generator-supplied power, building switchgear and transformers, and UPS systems.” (Reduce energy losses from power distribution units (PDUS) 2020). PDUs are used to distribute power from the main power sources to individual racks or equipment. They ensure that each server rack or cabinet receives the appropriate amount of power according to its requirements.

Panels

“Power to the racks was provided by a number of panel boards within the data center supplied from four distribution panels” ( Xu & Greenberg, 2007) From this review, it can be seen how electrical panels are used to control and manage power distribution within the data centre. They house circuit breakers, fuses, and monitoring devices to regulate the flow of electricity, protect against overloads, and provide safety measures.

Scalability

Power infrastructure in data centres needs to be scalable to accommodate future growth and increasing power demands. As data centres expand, additional power capacity must be available to support the installation of new servers, storage systems, and networking equipment.

A-B

Redundant power paths are commonly referred to as A-B power feeds. A and B represent separate power sources that feed into different electrical distribution systems within the data centre. Each server rack or cabinet is connected to both A and B power feeds to ensure redundancy and fault tolerance. Furthermore, these power paths may have separate power providers connected to different substations.

Conditioning

Data centres employ power conditioning mechanisms to ensure the quality and reliability of the electricity received from the grid. Power conditioning equipment includes transformers, voltage regulators, and power filters.

Transformers

Transformers are used to step up or step down the voltage of the incoming power to match the requirements of the data centre's electrical infrastructure. They “converts one AC voltage to another AC voltage at the same frequency” (Power Transformers 2013) ensuring a stable voltage supply and potentiating against voltage fluctuations.

Regulators

“To maintain a constant voltage level” (Dhawale et al., 2019) voltage regulators are used. They help protect sensitive equipment from damage caused by voltage surges.

Filters

Power “filters are utilized to eliminate harmonics and enhance power quality of distribution system” (Hantouli, 2018) ensuring clean and reliable power for the data centre equipment preventing disruptions, data corruption, and performance issues caused by electrical disturbances.

Renewable

Some data centres also incorporate renewable energy sources, such as solar panels or wind turbines, into their power infrastructure as part of their sustainability efforts. These renewable energy sources can supplement the power drawn from the electrical grid and reduce the data centre's environmental footprint.

Transfer

Once the backup generators are operational, the power load is transferred from the UPS system to the generators. The ATS controls this transfer and ensures a smooth transition of power supply. It is important to distribute the load evenly across the backup generators to prevent overloading and ensure optimal performance. Load management systems monitor and balance the power consumption of the data centre equipment to ensure efficient utilization of the backup generator capacity.

Connectivity

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Balancing

Data centres utilize load balancing techniques to evenly distribute network traffic across multiple servers and network connections. Load balancers intelligently distribute incoming requests, optimizing resource utilization and preventing network congestion. Load balancing helps ensure smooth and efficient data transfer by preventing any single server or network link from becoming overwhelmed.

IXPs

“An IXP is a data center with network switches through which ISPs exchange traffic (peer) with each other” (Alam et al., 2022). Peering allows for direct network connections between networks, improving latency and reducing the reliance on third-party transit providers and serve as meeting points where multiple networks interconnect, enabling efficient exchange of data traffic.

CDNs

Data centres may incorporate CDNs into their network infrastructure to enhance content delivery and improve performance for users in different geographic locations. CDNs distribute content across a network of “geographically distributed servers that caches content so that users can access cached copies of the content instead of getting it from the original server” (Krzyzanowski, 2021).

Switches

Switches are devices that connect multiple servers and other network devices within a data centre. They operate at the data link layer (Layer 2) of the network protocol stack and “channels incoming data from any of multiple input ports to the specific output port that will take the data toward its intended destination” (Stouffer et al., 2019).

Routers

Routers are “gateway between two networks at OSI layer 3 and that relays and directs data packets through that inter-network” (Stouffer et al., 2019) that facilitate the exchange of data packets between different networks, including external networks outside the data centre.

Fibre

Fiber optic cables are “thin strands of coated glass fibers” (Fiber Optics 2023) that transmit data using pulses of light. They are designed to provide high-speed and long-distance data transmission capabilities. Within a data centre, fibre optic cables are used for both interconnecting equipment within the same data centre and establishing connections to external networks.

Cabling

Structured cabling involves the use of standardized cabling components, including fibre optic cables, patch panels, connectors, and cable management systems, to create a unified and organized cabling infrastructure. They adopt industry-standard cabling specifications, such as the “TIA/EIA-568-B” (Interconnecting your hubs, transceivers, and Nic Cards 2023) or “ISO/IEC 11801” (Subject: Data Communications Cabling FAQ 1995), to ensure compatibility, scalability, and maintainability of the cabling infrastructure.

Protocls

Network switches and routers rely on various protocols to manage the flow of data within a data centre. They use protocols such as “Ethernet” (Ethernet protocol 2021) and “VLAN (Virtual Local Area Network)” (Editor, 2021), allowing switches to establish connections between devices and create logical network segments for improved network management and security.

Routing protocols, such as “Border Gateway Protocol (BGP)” (Dordal, 2023) and “Open Shortest Path First (OSPF)” (Brad, 2021), enable routers to exchange routing information and determine the most efficient paths for data packets. Additionally, network switches and routers support protocols like “Quality of Service (QoS)” (QoS (quality of service) 2023) to prioritize certain types of traffic, ensuring optimal performance for critical applications or services.

Cooling

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(CRAC/CRAH)

Computer Room Air Conditioning (CRAC) or Computer Room Air Handler (CRAH) units are commonly used in data centres “to maintain the server and switch gear inlet temperatures and moisture content within an acceptable envelope” ( Meadows, 2017). These units use refrigeration technology to cool the air and maintain the desired temperature and humidity levels within the data centre. CRAC units typically blow cool air from under the raised floor or overhead, while CRAH units release cool air from above. They are often connected to the data centre's overall HVAC (Heating, Ventilation, and Air Conditioning) system.

Chilled

“Chilled water” (Ling et al., 2018) systems involve circulating chilled water through a network of pipes to remove heat from the data centre. These systems use chillers to cool the water, and the chilled water is then distributed to air handling units or cooling coils located within the data centre. The chilled water absorbs heat from the air, and the warm water is returned to the chillers for re-cooling. Chilled water systems offer high cooling capacity and energy efficiency, making them popular in large-scale data centres.

Direct-Expansion

DX cooling systems, also known as direct expansion or refrigerant-based cooling, use a “refrigerant” (Choudhury, 2023) to directly cool the air within the data centre. These systems utilize indoor units, like air conditioning units, to blow cold air directly into the data centre space. DX cooling is often used in smaller or modular data centres where the cooling load is relatively low.

Liquid

In Liquid cooling systems “coolant is passed over vital components, draws away heat, has this heat dispersed by means of a radiator, and continues through the cooling circuit again” (Ellsworth, 2012). These systems can be either direct-to-chip (D2C) or immersion cooling. D2C cooling uses liquid-cooled plates or heat exchangers to cool specific components within servers, while immersion cooling submerges entire servers or racks in non-conductive cooling liquids such as mineral oil. Liquid cooling systems offer higher cooling efficiency and can handle high-density computing environments but may require additional infrastructure and maintenance considerations.

Free

Free cooling utilizes the natural environment to cool the data centre instead of relying solely on mechanical cooling systems. This approach takes advantage of “ambient temperatures” (Li, 2014) especially during cooler seasons or in regions with favourable climates. Air economizers or evaporative cooling techniques are used to draw in outside air and cool the data centre without the need for traditional cooling equipment, reducing energy consumption.

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Hardware & Software

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HDD

“Traditional hard disk drives (HDDs) are used in datacenters” (Datacenter Resource Management 2023)

SSD

“solid state devices (SSDs) emerge as a viable storage alternative”(Datacenter Resource Management 2023)

Tape

Although old, magnetic tape continues to be utilized for long-term data archival and backup purposes due to its durability, cost-effectiveness, and high storage capacity.

Orchestration

Tools like Ansible, Puppet, or Kubernetes orchestrate and automate the deployment, scaling, and management of applications and services in the data centre.

VM

Virtualization software, such as VMware vSphere or Microsoft Hyper-V, enables the creation of virtual machines (VMs) for efficient utilization of server resources.

OS

Servers in data centres run different operating systems, including Linux distributions (e.g., Ubuntu, CentOS), “Unix and Windows Server” (Usage of operating systems broken down by data center providers 2023).

Management

Data centre management tools monitor and control infrastructure, automate provisioning and deployment, and provide insights into performance and resource utilization.

Across-Centers

Sharding: Sharding involves dividing the data into smaller subsets or shards and distributing these shards across “multiple datacentres” (Multi-data Center consistency 2013). Each datacentre is responsible for storing and managing a specific subset of the data. Sharding enables parallel processing and improves performance by distributing the workload across multiple locations.

DFS

Distributed file systems like Hadoop Distributed File System (HDFS) and Google File System (GFS) are designed to store and process large amounts of data across multiple datacentres. “Files distributed across multiple servers appear to users as if they reside in one place on the network so that users do not need to know the specific computer files are on to access them” (Setting up the distributed file system (DFS) in UMROOT 2019) providing availability and fault tolerance.

Erasure

“Erasure coding provides the fundamental technology for storage systems to add redundancy and tolerate failures” (Plank & Huang, 2022) through a technique that breaks down data into smaller fragments and adds redundant information (parity) to create encoded blocks. These encoded blocks are then distributed across multiple datacentres. Even if some Datacentres experience failures or data loss, the original data can be reconstructed using the encoded fragments and parity information.

Security

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Physical

Access control systems, including biometric authentication, keycards, and surveillance cameras, limit unauthorized access to the data centre facility.

Fire

Data centres have fire detection systems, such as smoke detectors and fire alarms, along with fire suppression systems to mitigate the risk of fire-related damage.

Monitoring

Data centres have security operations centres (SOCs) that monitor network activity, detect threats, and respond to security incidents promptly.

Disaster

Redundant Hardware: Critical systems and components are often duplicated or deployed in a redundant configuration to minimize single points of failure.

Redundancy

Redundant Hardware: Critical systems and components are often duplicated or deployed in a redundant configuration to minimize single points of failure.

Backup

Regular data backups are performed and stored in separate systems or off-site locations to facilitate data restoration in case of data loss or corruption.

Continuity

Data centres have comprehensive disaster recovery plans that outline procedures, responsibilities, and processes to recover operations and services efficiently.

Simulations

Disaster recovery plans are regularly tested through simulations and drills to identify any weaknesses and ensure their effectiveness.

Auditing

Internal Auditors: Data centres may have internal audit teams that conduct regular assessments of their operations, processes, and security controls. Internal auditors evaluate the effectiveness of controls, identify potential risks, and make recommendations for improvement.

External

Independent third-party auditing firms or consultants may be engaged to perform external audits of data centres. These auditors assess the data centre's compliance with industry standards, regulatory requirements, and security frameworks. They provide objective evaluations and issue audit reports highlighting areas of strength and areas that require improvement.

Regulatory

Data centres may be subject to audits by regulatory bodies depending on the industry they operate in. For example, in the financial sector, data centres may undergo audits by financial regulatory authorities to ensure compliance with specific security and privacy regulations.

Certification

Compliance with industry standards, such as “ISO 27001 (Information Security Management System)” (ISO/IEC 27001 Standard – information security management systems 2023) or “SOC 2 (Service Organization Control)” (SOC 2 & ISAE 3000 2021), may be sought to demonstrate adherence to best practices.

Customer

Data centres may also be audited by their customers and business partners. Customers, especially those with stringent security and compliance requirements, may conduct audits to ensure that their data is being stored and processed in a secure and compliant environment. Similarly, business partners may perform audits to assess the data centre's suitability for hosting their applications or services.

At rest & Transport

Data-at-rest encryption involves encrypting data when it is stored on storage devices, such as hard drives or solid-state drives. This encryption ensures that even if the physical storage media is compromised, the data remains encrypted and unreadable. “Advanced Encryption Standard (AES)” (Kak , 2023) is a widely used symmetric encryption algorithm for data-at-rest encryption.

When data is transmitted between Datacentres or between clients and Datacentres over networks, TLS is commonly employed. “TLS” (What is Transport Layer Security (TLS)? 2022) is a cryptographic protocol that establishes an encrypted connection, ensuring data confidentiality and integrity during transmission. It utilizes symmetric encryption for bulk data encryption and asymmetric encryption for secure key exchange and authentication.

Database

Data centres may apply encryption techniques at the database level to protect sensitive information stored within databases. This involves encrypting specific fields, columns, or entire databases. Encryption methods like Transparent Data Encryption (TDE) or column-level encryption can be utilized to secure data within databases.

Key

Encryption in Datacentres relies on secure key management practices. This includes generating strong encryption keys, securely storing and distributing keys, and regularly rotating or updating keys. Key management systems and protocols ensure that encryption keys are properly protected and accessed only by authorized personnel.

Application

In some cases, data centres may employ application-level encryption, where sensitive data is encrypted before it is stored in the database or transmitted over the network. This can be done using encryption libraries or frameworks provided by programming languages or utilizing specialized encryption APIs.

Disk

Datacentres often utilize disk encryption to protect data at rest on hard drives and solid-state drives (SSDs). Disk encryption involves encrypting the entire storage device or individual partitions, making the data inaccessible without the appropriate decryption key. This helps safeguard data in case of physical theft or unauthorized access to the storage media.

VPN

Datacentres may use “VPNs” (About VPNs 2023) to create secure and encrypted connections over public networks. VPNs provide an additional layer of security by encrypting all data passing between the datacentre and remote users or other datacentre s, protecting it from eavesdropping and tampering.

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